Developmental Visual-Spatial Disorder

In this research area, we aim to deepen the understanding of Nonverbal Learning Disability (NLD), reconceptualized as Developmental Visual-Spatial Disorder (DVSD). This condition affects how children and adolescents process visual and spatial information, often impacting learning, fine-motor coordination, and social interaction.

Our goal is to contribute to the scientific knowledge of this disorder by studying the neuropsychological profile of individuals with NLD and exploring how their abilities develop over time. We conduct research that focuses on cognitive functions, motor skills, and socio-emotional aspects, using a multi-method approach that includes neuropsychological testing, behavioral assessments, and feedback from families and teachers.

In addition, by analyzing age effects and developmental trajectories, we aim to understand the challenges and resources associated with NLD. Our findings aim to support the development of more precise diagnostic tools and personalized intervention strategies.

We investigate a range of topics including:

• Cognitive and visuospatial functioning in children with NLD: we set-up and are currently testing a digital battery to assess spatial abilities in developmental populations (aged 8 – 16 years old). The battery was devised taking into account insights from world-level research on the structure of spatial skills and allows the measurement of both accuracy and speed. On the one hand, we aim to contribute to the knowledge on NLD, contributing to its aknowledgment as a discrete disorder. On the other hand, we aim to enhance the availability of diagnostic for identifying spatial difficulties in children and adolescents.
• Motor and coordination difficulties, also encompassing handwriting abilities: our research is focused on the kinematic (vs. static) features of handwriting, that we measure combining the adaptation of standardized tests with innovative digital assessment. Around this, we aim to explore the link between different motor abilities and handwriting proficiency.
• Emotional and social abilities: we are deeping the study of the interplay between the visual-spatial profile and social functioning by using a multi-level approach consisting of both direct testing and parent-reports. As difficulties in the socio-relational domain may be related to different underlying profiles, we aim to shed broader light to the specificities of the NLD profile.
• Neurodevelopmental profiles and comorbidities: the vast majority of our studies rely on cross-profile comparisons, given the well-documented overlap among neurodevelopmental disorders. Therefore, we not only focus on the core features of each profile, but also strive to consider the full array, ultimately aiming to highlight both similarities and differences, thereby enhancing understanding and clinical characterisation.

LEARN MORE ABOUT NONVERBAL LEARNING DISORDER
Explore other recommended sources to better understand Nonverbal Learning Disorder (NLD):
https://www.aidnv.it/
https://www.columbiapsychiatry.org/research-labs/non-verbal-learning-disability-nvld-research-program
https://nvld.org/

Cardillo, R., Orefice, C., Leanza, N., Mammarella, I. C., (2025).
Motor and visuospatial processing profile in a cross-conditions study: A comparison between developmental coordination disorder and nonverbal learning disability. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 158, 104922.

Orefice C, Cardillo R, Lonciari I, Zoccante L, Mammarella IC. (2024).
“Picture this from there”: spatial perspective-taking in developmental visuospatial disorder and developmental coordination disorder. Frontiers in Psychology. 15, 1349851.

Coccaro, A., Banich, M., Mammarella, I. C., & Liotti, M. (2024).
Estimating the prevalence of Non-Verbal Learning Disability (NVLD) from the ABCD sample. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 8212.

Mammarella, I.C., Cardillo, R., Orefice C. (2023).
Trajectory assessments of cognitive, visuospatial, and academic profile in nonverbal learning disability (visuospatial developmental disorder). Research in Developmental Disabilities, 139, 104540.

Orefice, C., Cardillo, R., & Mammarella, I. C. (2023).
L’importanza di approfondire deficit visuo-spaziali e di coordinazione motoria per l’identificazione di distinti disturbi del neurosviluppo. Psicologia clinica dello sviluppo, 2, 291–294.

Coccaro, A., Di Bono, M. G., Maffei, A., Orefice, C., Lievore, R., Mammarella, I., & Liotti, M. (2023).
Resting State Dynamic Reconfiguration of Spatial Attention Cortical Networks and Visuospatial Functioning in Non-Verbal Learning Disability (NVLD): A HD-EEG Investigation. Brain Sciences, 13(5), Articolo 5.

Mammarella, I.C., Cardillo, R., &; Semrud-Clikeman, M. (2022).
Do comorbid symptoms discriminate among autism spectrum disorder, ADHD and Nonverbal learning disability? Research in Developmental Disabilities, 126, 104242.

Mammarella, I. C. (2022).
Editorial: Time to Recognize Nonverbal Learning Disability to Foster advances in Its Research. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 61(2), 120–121.

Orefice, C., & Mammarella, I. C. (2022).
Disturbo non verbale (visuo-spaziale) e Disturbo dello spettro dell’autismo senza disabilità intellettiva: Come la valutazione delle abilità visuo-spaziali può contribuire alla diagnosi differenziale. Temi di Psicologia dell’Ordine degli Psicologi della Campania, 1(4), 1.

Cardillo, R., Vio, C. & Mammarella, I. C. (2020).
A comparison of local-global visuospatial processing in Autism Spectrum Disorder, Nonverbal Learning Disability, ADHD and Typical Development. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 103, 103682.

Mammarella, I. C. (2020).
The importance of defining shared criteria for the diagnosis of NVLD. Invited commentary. Journal of American Medical Association, JAMA Network Open, 3:4 e202559.

Mammarella, I. C., Cardillo, R., & Broitman, J. (2021). Understanding Non-Verbal Learning Disability: A guide to symptoms, management and treatment. ROUTLEDGE.

Mammarella, I. C., & Cornoldi, C. (2020). Chapter 7—Nonverbal learning disability (developmental visuospatial disorder). In A. Gallagher, C. Bulteau, D. Cohen, & J. L. Michaud (A c. Di), Handbook of Clinical Neurology (Vol. 174, pagg. 83–91). Elsevier.

Salviato, C., Cornoldi, C., & Mammarella, I. C. (2020). Intervento per le difficoltà socio-relazionali: Programma cognitivo-comportamentale sulle social skills per ragazzi con autismo, ADHD e altri disturbi. Erickson

Cornoldi, C., Mammarella, I. C., & Fine, J., (2016).
Nonverbal Learning Disabilities. New York: Guilford Press.